<scene name='10/1075249/Lcb1_and_spike_rbd/1'>Text To Be Displayed</scene><scene name='10/1075249/Binding_region/1'>Text To Be Displayed</scene>{{Sandbox_Reserved_CH462_Biochemistry_II_2025}}
=''Structure''=
==Introduction==
===What are the SARS-CoV2 Minibinders?===
These mini proteins target the interaction between ACE2 and SARS-CoV-2 spike protein <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. The mini binders are small proteins designed to bind to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein with a greater affinity than ACE2 <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. These mini binders reduce the viral burden of SARS-CoV-2 in mice <ref name="Case">PMID:34192518</ref>. Minibinders were de novo ITALICS designed to mimic the ACE2 helix, but have a lower dissociation constant, yielding a greater affinity for the spike protein <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. The binding region between <scene name='10/1075251/Ace2_and_rbd/3'>spike protein and ACE2</scene> (PDB: [https://www.rcsb.org/structure/8K4U 8K4U]) makes it seem like binding region is telling how these proteins were designed. Taking a closer look at the SARS-CoV-2 disease pathway shows where the minibinders target the interaction between ACE2 and SARS-CoV-2 spike protein.

[[Image:Minibinders RBD.jpg|500 px|right|thumb|Figure 1. Image of the individual helices of AHB2, LCB1, and LCB3, respectively, bound to the RBD of the spike protein.]]

===SARS-CoV-2 Disease Pathway===
Minibinders mimic the pathway of the SARS-CoV-2 virus attachment to the cell surface receptors. In the standard process, the SARS-CoV-2 surface spike proteins bind to the host cell receptor, ACE2. This anchors to the host for viral entry <ref name="Sang">PMID:36499120</ref. When the spike protein binds to the ACE2 receptor, the cell membrane-associated protease, TMPRSS2, activates the spike protein, promoting viral entry <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>. The activated spike protein then cleaves itself into S1 and S2 subunits <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>. The S1 subunit contains a receptor binding domain that recognizes and binds to ACE2 <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>. The S2 subunit undergoes a conformational change which permits viral entry <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>. The S2 domain has a fusion peptide (FP) domain that will help regulate membrane fusion by disrupting and connecting the host cell’s membrane <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>. The S2 domain is also composed of HR1 and HR2 subunits, which are heptapeptide sequences involved in the entry of SARS-CoV-2. HR1 is located at the C-terminal domain of a hydrophobic FP, and HR2 is located at the N-terminal of the transmembrane domain <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>. In this conformational change, the S2 subunit inserts its FP domain into the host cell's membrane. Once the host cell’s membrane is penetrated, this triggers an interaction with the HR2 domain and HR1 trimer, forming the 6-helical bundle. The bundle brings the viral envelope and cell membrane in close enough distance for viral fusion and ultimately viral entry <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>. Once inside, the virus translates viral proteins, eliciting an immune response and spreading the viral particles throughout the body <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>.
===Minibinders block SARS- CoV-2 Acceptor Binding===
The primary goal of the mini binders is to prevent the spike proteins from binding to ACE2, blocking viral membrane attachment <ref name="Case">PMID:34192518</ref>. Because the mini binders have a greater binding affinity than ACE2 for the spike protein, they prevent viral entry and infection <ref name="Cao">PMID:32907861</ref>. Targeting this specific interaction between the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and ACE2 are potential targets for future therapeutics to treat the virus <refname="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>.
There is a demand for more treatments for SARS-CoV-2. These minibinders pose an advantage to other therapeutics, such as antibodies, because they are much smaller in size and more stable <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. As for vaccines, constantly updating and modifying them drains finances and time. The faster and more cost-appropriate answer is in the minibinders <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>.

===Expectations of this page===
The focus of this page is on the design of mini binders and how they effectively prevent the entry of the viral SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. To explain inhibition by the minibinders, we will initially describe the structure of the spike protein and its interaction with ACE2. We will then explain the helical design of minibinders and how they block spike protein function. Laying the foundation for the mini binders, we will then take a look at how the mini binders are designed to obtain the best possible helical structure. With that, then it is finally time to look at the receptor binding domain between the various mini binders and their interactions with the spike protein.

===Design===
AHB2 is a Series A Helix Binder which is a miniprotein that binds specifically to the alpha helix of the protein. LCB1 and LCB3 are long chain bases that are longer in length which allow for more contact between the RBD, increasing the binding affinity. These mini binders, AHB2 and LCB1, were designed de novo ITALICS with the intention to mimic the binding of ACE2 to the spike protein <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. Using Rotamer Interaction Field (RIF) docking, the proteins were able to make the most efficient bonding using the ACE2 spike protein binding interface <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>.
Using Site Saturation Mutagenesis (SSM), every residue in the minibinder’s helix scaffold was substituted with each of the 20 amino acids, one at a time, computationally choosing the best sequence <ref name="Valleti">PMID:24970191</ref>. Forming SSM libraries,experimental tests were run on each of the libraries to converge on a small number of closely related sequences <ref name="Valleti">PMID:24970191</ref>. From these libraries, one of these was selected for each design, AHB2 or LCB1-LCB8<ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>.
AHB2 was designed using an ACE2 helix scaffold, while LCB1 and LCB3 were designed completely from scratch, attempting to make the best possible helix with the greatest affinity for the spike protein receptors . Although LCB1 was designed before LCB3, LCB3 was less effective at neutralizing the viral response with a high IC50 !SUBSCRIPT! Value <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref> .
These minibinders are small proteins, modeled similarly to the ACE2 and SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. There were two strategies utilized. One strategy included directly incorporating the ACE2 helix of the RBD and creating more interactions, increasing the binding affinity of the minibinders <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. The other strategy was designing the minibinders completely from scratch, completely dependent on the RBD <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. AHB2 utilized the first method, incorporating the ACE2 helix, while LCB1 and LCB3 utilized the second method <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref> .

==Implications==
===Potency of the minibinders===
Examining the IC50 values of the various mini binders gives quantitative data to the effectiveness of the proteins in preventing an immune response. The highest IC50 was AHB2 (15.5 nM), followed by LCB3 (40.1 pM) LCB1 (23.5 pM) <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. The higher IC50 indicates a larger concentration of mini binder required to inhibit the biological process. Both LCB1 and LCB3 proved to be significantly more effective than AHB2, LCB1 and LCB3 were within 3-fold of the most potent anti-Spike monoclonal antibodies described to date <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>.
===Results from mice study===
The effectiveness of the most potent minibinder was examined in mice. LCB1 was administered to the mice via nasal delivery. As expected, compared to control mini protein, the LCB1 was significantly more effective at reducing the viral burden, diminishing the immune cell infiltration, and inflammation <ref name="Case">PMID:34192518</ref>. The virus was not detected in the lungs 4-7 days post-infection, and the spleen, heart, and brain had viral RNA at very low concentrations <ref name="Case">PMID:34192518</ref>.
===Benefits of minibinders over other therapeutics===
The size of these mini binders is a large reason why they are so effective. The minibinders have a 20-fold more potential for nebulization compared with antibodies, and the molecular weight of the minibinders is 5% of a full antibody molecule <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. When the LCB1 wasa attached to a human IgG domain to enhance bioavailability, staying in the body longer, LCB1 was less effective <ref name="Case">PMID:34192518</ref>. This is likely due to the increase in size when bound to the antibody. The high stability of the mini binders allows them to be administered as a gel via nebulization <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. Future directions of mini binders are to increase the efficiency of the process to obtain a sequence for pathogen neutralizing designs more promptly <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. Given that there are only a small number of antibody therapies and vaccines approved for treatment of SARS-CoV-2, minibinders as potential therapeutics may lay the foundation for similar minibinders designs as treatments for other viruses.

<StructureSection load='7JZU' size='340' side='right' caption='Caption for this structure' scene='10/1075249/Lcb1_spikerbd/1'>
This is a default text for your page ''''''. Click above on '''edit this page''' to modify. Be careful with the < and > signs.
You may include any references to papers as in: the use of JSmol in Proteopedia <ref>DOI 10.1002/ijch.201300024</ref> or to the article describing Jmol <ref>PMID:21638687</ref> to the rescue.

This is an image of LCB1 bound to the RBD of a spike protein. <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>.
[[Image:LCB1 RBD.png|400 px|left|thumb|Figure 1. The coolest image ever!]]

This is the link to the salt bridge
<scene name='10/1075249/Salt_bridge_lcb1/1'>10/1075249/Salt_bridge_lcb1/1</scene>
== Function ==

== Disease ==

== Relevance ==

== Structural highlights ==

This is a sample scene created with SAT to <scene name="/12/3456/Sample/1">color</scene> by Group, and another to make <scene name="/12/3456/Sample/2">a transparent representation</scene> of the protein. You can make your own scenes on SAT starting from scratch or loading and editing one of these sample scenes.

</StructureSection>

<StructureSection load='7JZU' size='350' frame='true'
side='right' caption='LCB1 AND 7JZU' scene=’’
== References ==
<references/>

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Lilly Hiester:

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Lilly Hiester:

Sandbox Reserved 1847

2025-04-17T18:25:33Z

Lilly Hiester:

2025-04-15T03:07:10Z

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Lilly Hiester:

<scene name='10/1075249/Binding_region/1'>Text To Be Displayed</scene>{{Sandbox_Reserved_CH462_Biochemistry_II_2025}}
=''Structure''=
==Introduction==
===What are Minibinders?===
These mini proteins target the interaction between ACE2 and COVID-19 spike protein <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. The mini binders are small proteins carefully designed to bind to the COVID-19 spike protein with a greater affinity than ACE2 <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. These mini binders were able to reduce the viral burden of SARS-CoV-2 in mice <ref name="Case">PMID:34192518</ref>. These proteins were de novo (from scratch) designs to mimic the ACE2 helix, but have a lower dissociation constant, yielding a greater affinity for the spike protein <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. <scene name='10/1075249/Binding_region/1'>Binding Region between spike protein and ACE2</scene> can give a better explanation as to how these proteins were designed.
===COVID-19 Disease Pathway===
Understanding the pathway of the COVID-19 virus is essential to understanding the mechanism in which the virus’ surface proteins attach to the mini binders. The COVID-19 virus has spike proteins on its surface that bind to the host cell receptor, known as ACE2, and this allows the virus to remain anchored to the host for viral entry <ref name="Sang">PMID:36499120</ref. When the spike protein binds to the receptor, ACE2 for example, the cell membrane-associated protease, TM protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) promotes viral entry by activating the spike protein <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>. The activated spike protein is able to cleave itself into S1 and S2 subunits <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>. The S2 subunit is in charge of viral entry and does this through conformational changes <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>. The S2 subunit will insert it's FP domain into the host cell's membrane, and this will trigger an interaction with the HR2 domain and HR1 trimer to form the 6-helical bundle to bring the viral envelope and cell membrane in close enough distance for viral fusion and ultimately viral entry <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>. Once the virus is within the host cell, it is able to translate viral proteins, eliciting an immune response and spreading the viral particles throughout the body <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>.
===COVID-19 Viral Infection Interruption===
The primary goal of the mini binders is to prevent the spike proteins from binding to ACE2, and when the mini binders are bound to the spike protein, the virus is unable to anchor itself to the host protein <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. Because the mini binders have a greater binding affinity than ACE2 for the spike protein, they are able to effectively prevent the entry of the virus and ultimately prevent an immune response <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>. Targeting this specific interaction between the COVID-19 spike protein has proven effective and is hopeful target for future therapeutics to treat the virus <ref name="Huang">PMID:32747721</ref>.

==Design==
These mini binders, LCB1 and AHB2, were designed from “scratch” (de novo) with the intention to mimic the binding of ACE2 to spike protein (insert citation). Using Rotamer Interaction Field (RIF) docking, the proteins were able to make the most efficient bonding using the ACE2 spike protein binding interface (insert citation). Using Site Saturation Mutagenesis (SSM), every residue in the minibinder’s helix scaffold will be substituted with each of the 20 amino acids, one at a time (insert citation). Forming SSM libraries, each of the libraries converged on a small number of closely related sequences, and from these libraries, the design was selected for LCB1 and AHB2 to find the sequence that yields a protein with a high affinity for the spike proteins receptor binding domain (insert).
<StructureSection load='7JZU' size='340' side='right' caption='Caption for this structure' scene='10/1075249/Lcb1_spikerbd/1'>
This is a default text for your page ''''''. Click above on '''edit this page''' to modify. Be careful with the < and > signs.
You may include any references to papers as in: the use of JSmol in Proteopedia <ref>DOI 10.1002/ijch.201300024</ref> or to the article describing Jmol <ref>PMID:21638687</ref> to the rescue.

This is an image of LCB1 bound to the RBD of a spike protein. <ref name="Longxing">PMID:32907861</ref>.
[[Image:LCB1 RBD.png|400 px|left|thumb|Figure 1. The coolest image ever!]]

This is the link to the salt bridge
<scene name='10/1075249/Salt_bridge_lcb1/1'>10/1075249/Salt_bridge_lcb1/1</scene>
== Function ==

== Disease ==

== Relevance ==

== Structural highlights ==

This is a sample scene created with SAT to <scene name="/12/3456/Sample/1">color</scene> by Group, and another to make <scene name="/12/3456/Sample/2">a transparent representation</scene> of the protein. You can make your own scenes on SAT starting from scratch or loading and editing one of these sample scenes.

</StructureSection>

<StructureSection load='7JZU' size='350' frame='true'
side='right' caption='LCB1 AND 7JZU' scene=’’
== References ==
<references/>