View source for Intracellular receptors

<StructureSection load='' size='300' side='right' caption='Human androgen receptor ligand-binding domain complex with modulator (PDB code [[3b5r]])' scene='54/543362/Cv/1'>
==Signal recognition particle receptor==
*[[Signal recognition particle receptor]]
<scene name='48/485587/Cv/6'>GTP binding site</scene>. Water molecules are shown as red spheres.

<scene name='48/485587/Cv/7'>Mg coordination site</scene>.
==Receptor for activated C kinase 1==
*[[Receptor for activated protein kinase C 1]]

==Nuclear receptors==
*[[Nuclear receptors]]
*[[Thyroid hormone receptor]]
The <scene name='78/781020/Cv/3'>thyroid hormone binds in the ligand niche making several interactions with TR</scene>
*[[Retinoic acid receptor]]
The <scene name='51/516466/Cv/4'>all-trans retinoid acid binds to the hydrophobic pocket of RARγ</scene>.
*[[RA Mediated T-reg Differentiation]]; Retinoic acid acts as the ligand for the Retinoic Acid Receptor-α (RARα) / Retinoid X Receptor-α (RXRα) heterodimer

<scene name='51/519788/Cv/1'>RARα-RXRα interaction</scene> (PDB entry [[1dkf]]).
The Ligand binding domain for each piece of the dimer has a nearly identical structure of an <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Alpha-helical_domains/2'>Tα-helical sandwich</scene>. These α-helices form 12 domains per protein (H1-12), with an additional 2 β-sheets. The α-helical sandwich bind All-Trans Retinoic Acid (ATRA), the isomer of RA used by the body. Both monomers contain two regions of activity, the <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Dimerization_interface/3'>dimerization interface</scene> and the <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Ligand_binding_pockets/1'>ligand binding pocket </scene>.

When RARα/RXRα proteins form a heterodimer, the overall structure of the larger dimer is comparable to that of an RXRα homodimer, likely due to the many similarities these 2 molecules share.  RARα and RXRα rely on residues from the H7-10, L8-9, and L9-10 domains of both molecules to form the <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Dimerization_interface/1'>heterodimer interface</scene>. The sequence identity between the 2 molecules on the dimer interface is 0.33. 

The residues of <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Rar_dimer_interface/2'> RAR-</scene>α that are interacting in the heterodimer:
Hydrophobic residues: L356, F374, P375, L378, M379, I381 and A389 (yellow);
Negatively charged residues: D338, D349, E353, E357, D383, and E393 (red);
Positively charged residues: K360, R364, H372, K376, K380, and R385 (blue);
Hydrophilic residues: Q315, Q352, T382, and S386 (green).

The residues of <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Rxr_dimer_interface/2'>RXR-</scene>α that are interacting in the heterodimer are as follows:
Hydrophobic residues: Y402, P417, F420, A421, L424, L425, L427, P428, A429, and L435 (yellow);
Negatively charged residues: E357, D384, E395, E399, E406, and E439  (red);
Positively charged residues: R353, K361, R398, K410, K422, R426, R431, and K436 (blue);
Hydrophilic residues: S432 (green).

Upon binding of the ligand ATRA in the cytoplasm, RARα and RXRα form a heterodimer and alter the C-terminals on domain H12 of both subunits in a manner that allows them to change the conformation of their DNA binding domains. The 2 proteins have 29% identity in their <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Ligand_binding_pockets/1'>LBD</scene>. For the ligand used in RARα crystallization, BMS614, 21 primarily hydrophobic residues form the <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Rar-ligand_binding_pocket/1'>RARα ligand binding pocket</scene>. BMS614 is not the natural ligand for this molecule, but acts as stable agonist for crystallization. The largest difference between BMS614 and ATRA upon binding to the pocket are at Ile412, where BMS614 pushes much closer to the amino acid than ATRA does. Residues that form the binding pocket are found on H1, H3, H5, H11, L6-7, and L11-12 on RARα. The <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Rar-ligand_binding_pocket2/1'>major differences</scene> between RARα, RARβ and RARγ are present in this area: Residue 270: α:Ile β:Ile γ:Met; Residue 232: α:Ser β:Ala γ:Ala; Residue 395: α:Val β:Val γ:Ala

The <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Rxr-ligand_binding_pocket/1'>RXRα binding pocket</scene> is comprised of 16 primarily hydrophobic residues, found on the H3, H5, H7, H11, and L11-12 domains. The ligand used in the crystal, Oleic Acid, is similar to RA, and RA is capable of binding to the RXRα pocket.

<scene name='51/519788/Cv/2'>Crystal structure of RXRα-DNA complex</scene> ([[1by4]]).
When RXRα homodimers assemble on DNA, they form a 4 poplypeptide complex assembled via head to tail interactions along DR-1 repeated sequences. The 
<scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Rxr_dbd_alpha_helices/1'>α-helical</scene> structures of the polypeptides sit in the major grooves of the DNA chain, allowing for interaction with specific bases, giving a sequence specificity for the protein. The 2 <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Rxr_dbd_zn_domains/2'>Zn containing domains</scene> do not alter their configuration upon DNA binding, but are used to guide the DNA into the correct position. Upon binding to DNA, the C-terminal end of the protein, referred to as the <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Rxr_dbd_t-box/1'>"T-box"</scene> alters its conformation from α-helical to an extended conformation. This extended conformation allows Glu74 to move away from the DNA binding pocket and moves it so it interacts with the Zn(II) domain of the next polypeptide.

RXRα homodimers preferentially assemble on DR-1 repeat sequences. DR-1 sequences are composed of an AGGTCA tandem repeat, with a single nucleotide spacer in between the repeats. Only <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Rxr-dna_base_interact/1'>4 residues</scene> Lys22, Lys26, Glu19 and Arg27 interact with the DNA bases directly. <scene name='RA_Mediated_T-reg_Differentiaition/Rxr-dna_backbone_interact/1'>7 residues</scene> interact with the phosphate backbone of the DNA molecule, making sure it is in position for base recognition. RXRα homodimers should to assemble on DR-2 tandem repeats, sequences with the same organization as DR-1, but with 2 nucleotides as a spacer. The DNA interaction is similar with DR-2 repeats, just spaced further apart. 
* [[PPAR-gamma]]
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (<scene name='PPAR-gamma/Ppar_gamma/3'>(PPAR)</scene>γ) is a protein in the nuclear receptors subfamily. It is 1 of 3 isotypes (-α, -β/ δ, and -γ) of [[PPAR]] receptors and has 2 protein isoforms governed by splice variations, which result in differences in the length of the N-terminal region (PPARγ1 and PPARγ2). PPARγ is involved in transcriptional regulation of glucose and lipid homeostasis, and helps regulate adipocyte differentiation. It has a <scene name='PPAR-gamma/Binding_pocket/1' target='1'>large binding pocket</scene>, which allows it to interact with a wide array of ligands. <scene name='PPAR-gamma/Interacting_residues/3'>Ligand binding</scene> triggers a conformational change of PPARγ, in the activation function-2 <scene name='PPAR-gamma/Af-2_domain/2'>(AF-2) domain</scene>, which aids in the recruitment of co-regulatory factors to regulate gene transcription. PPARγ can form a <scene name='PPAR-gamma/Ppar_rxr/3'>heterodimer</scene> with retinoic X receptor α (RXRα), a process necessary for most PPARγ-DNA interactions. PPARγ is a molecular target for antidiabetic drugs such as thiazolidinediones (TZDs), which makes the protein a target for Type II Diabetes (T2D) drug research. 

PPARγ is composed of the ligand-independent activation domain (AF-1 region and A/B-domain), a DNA-binding domain (DBD) (C-domain), a hinge region (D-domain), and a ligand-dependent ligand-binding domain (LBD) (E/F-domain and AF-2 region). The 2 PPARγ isoforms, PPARγ1 and PPARγ2, differ by only 30 amino acids at the N-terminal end. These added amino acids on PPARγ2 result in increased potency and adipose-selectivity, which makes this protein a key player of adipocyte differentiation. The <scene name='PPAR-gamma/Lbd/2' target='2'>ligand binding domain</scene> is composed of 13 α-helices and 4 short β-strands. It has a T-shaped binding pocket with a volume of ~1440 Å3, which is larger than that of most nuclear receptors, allowing for interactions with a variety of ligands. The PPARγ LBD is folded into a helical sandwich to provide a binding site for ligands. It is located at the C-terminal end of PPARγ and is composed of ~ 250 amino acids. Activation by full agonists occurs through hydrogen bond interactions between the S289, H323, Y473, and H449 residues of the PPARγ-LBD and polar functional groups on the ligand which are typically carbonyl or carboxyl oxygen atoms. Agonist binding results in a conformational change of the LBD AF-2 region, which is necessary for coactivator recruitment. This change can either be dramatic or subtle, which leads to stabilization of a charge clamp between helices H3 and H12 to aid in associations with the LXXLL (L, leucine; X, any amino acid) motif of the coactivator. Ligand binding of PPARγ is regulated by communication between the N-terminal A/B domain, which is adjacent to the DBD, and the carboxyl-terminal LBD.

The <scene name='PPAR-gamma/Coactivator_bound/2'>coactivator site</scene> of PPARγ is a groove created by hydrophobic residues of the H3, H3’, H4, and H12 helices. Stabilization of the AF-2 domain is important for coactivator interactions, and is achieved through ligand binding. Upon agonist binding, coactivators and other chromatin-remodeling cofactors, like histone deacetylases, are recruited and transcription is activated.  Coactivators can be regulated at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, as well as by protein-kinase cascades. PPARγ can actively silence genes it is bound to by recruiting a corepressor in the absence of a ligand. Once this occurs, an antagonist binds to stabilize the AF-2 region, preventing interactions with coactivators and activation of transcription. Corepressor binding creates a 3-turn α-helix corepressor motif important for preventing the AF-2 domain from assuming an active conformation. Common coactivators of PPARγ include CBP/p300, the SRC family, and TRAP220.  Common corepressors include SMART, NCoR, and RIP140.
* [[Pioglitazone]] is a selective agonist for Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma
*[[Liver X receptor]]
<scene name='77/776388/Cv/2'>Human liver X receptor β ligand binding domain complex with retinoic X receptor β and modulator</scene>. LXR <scene name='77/776388/Cv/4'>modulator binds to the LXR</scene> in the LXR/retinoic X receptor β heterodimer in a hydrophobic <scene name='77/776388/Cv/5'>pocket</scene>.
*[[Bile acid receptor]]
<scene name='54/545859/Cv/3'>Structure</scene> of human FXR ligand-binding domain (deeppink) complex with non-steroidal agonist, nuclear receptor coactivator 1 peptide (cyan) and sulfate ions ([[3ruu]]).
*[[Vitamin D receptor]]
<scene name='56/562378/Vit_d_receptor_3m7r/3'>Vitamin D receptor (VDR)</scene> is a transcription factor. Upon binding to vitamin D, VDR forms a heterodimer with retinoid-X receptor and binds to hormone response receptors on DNA causing gene expression. The <scene name='56/562378/Vit_d_receptor_ligand/1'>vitamin D hormone</scene> (green) binds to receptors in its target cells, controlling the synthesis of many different proteins involved in Ca transport and utilization.
 
<scene name='51/517370/Cv/2'>Vitamin D hormone binding site</scene>. 

<scene name='51/517370/Cv/3'>Vitamin D hormone is located in deep pocket</scene>. VDR contains 2 domains: a <scene name='56/562378/Lbd/1'>ligand binding domain (LBD)</scene>, that binds to the hormone (grey) and <scene name='56/562378/Dbd/2'>DNA-binding domain (DBD)</scene> that binds to DNA (green and blue are 2 same VDR structures). It pairs up with a similar protein, 9-cis retinoic acid receptor (RXR), and together they bind to the DNA, activating synthesis in some cases and repressing it in others. When <scene name='56/562378/Serine_final/1'>serine</scene> is mutated it is replaced with a <scene name='56/562378/Glycine_final/1'>glycine</scene> which results in an inhibition of transcriptional activation. When transcription is inhibited it results in p53 accumulation, which activates and promotes p53 translocation into mitochondria leading to apoptosis. <scene name='56/562378/Serine_final/1'>Serine</scene> is replaced with <scene name='56/562378/Asparticacid_final/1'>aspartic acid</scene> when mutated creating a negative charge. The negative charge at the residue inhibits DNA binding which cause a downregulation of VDR activity. VDR needs DNA binding in order for it to be activated which is only possible with a serine residue. 

The vitamin D nuclear receptor is a ligand-dependent transcription factor that controls multiple biological responses such as cell proliferation, immune responses, and bone mineralization. Numerous 1 α,25(OH)(2)D(3) analogues, which exhibit low calcemic side effects and/or antitumoral properties, have been synthesized. It was shown that <scene name='56/562378/3a3z/1'>the synthetic analogue (20S,23S)-epoxymethano-1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (2a)</scene> acts as a 1α,25(OH)(2)D(3) superagonist and exhibits both antiproliferative and prodifferentiating properties in vitro. Using this information and on the basis of the crystal structures of human VDR ligand binding domain (hVDR LBD) bound to 1α,25(OH)(2)D(3), 2α-methyl-1α,25(OH)(2)D(3), or 2a, a novel analogue, 2α-methyl-(20S,23S)-epoxymethano-1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (4a) was designed, in order to increase its transactivation potency.

*[[Pregnane X receptor]]
<scene name='57/571285/Cv/3'>PXR ligand-binding pocket is flexible and allows binding to structurally and chemically distinct ligands among them the macrolide antibiotic rifampicin</scene> which is used in testing tuberculosis.
*[[Retinoid X receptor]]
<scene name='51/516465/Cv/4'>9-cis retinoid acid binds to RXRα LBD in a hydrophobic pocket</scene>. {{Template:ColorKey_Hydrophobic}},  {{Template:ColorKey_Polar}}. <scene name='51/516465/Cv/5'>9-cis retinoid acid is in a hydrophobic pocket</scene>. The ligand-binding residues are conserved in the 3 classes of RXR.
*[[Estrogen receptor]]
<scene name='Estrogen_receptor/Cv/1'>Click here to see the difference between conformations</scene> of estrogen receptor α complexed with [[raloxifene]] and a corepressor peptide (morph was taken from [http://molmovdb.org/cgi-bin/movie.cgi Gallery of Morphs] of the [http://molmovdb.org Yale Morph Server]).

Structure of estradiol metal chelate and  estrogen receptor complex: The basis for designing a new class of SERMs<ref>PMID: 21473635</ref>.
Selective estrogen receptor modulators, such as estradiol 17-derived metal complexes, have been synthesized as targeted probes for the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer. The detailed 3D structure of <scene name='Journal:JMEDCHEM:1/Cv/11'>estrogen receptor α ligand-binding domain (ER-LBD)</scene> bound with a novel <scene name='Journal:JMEDCHEM:1/Cv/5'>estradiol-derived metal complex, estradiol-pyridinium tetra acetate europium (III) (EPTA-Eu)</scene> at 2.6Å resolution was reported ([[2yat]]). The residues <scene name='Journal:JMEDCHEM:1/Cv/10'>Glu353, Arg394 and His524 and the conserved water molecule (W1006) form hydrogen bonds</scene> with EPTA-Eu. The hydrogen bonds are shown as white dashed lines. <scene name='Journal:JMEDCHEM:1/Cv/7'>Superposition</scene> of this structure with the structure of native ligand 17β-estradiol (E2) in the complex of E2/ERα-LBD complex ([[1ere]]) reveals that the <scene name='Journal:JMEDCHEM:1/Cv/12'>E2 core of EPTA-Eu overlaps closely with that of E2 itself</scene>. The <scene name='Journal:JMEDCHEM:1/Cv/9'>hydrogen bonds network</scene> made by additional estrogen receptor residues (''e.g.'' Glu419 of H7 and Glu339 of H3, this depends on subunit), may work together with the E2 17β hydroxyl-His524 hydrogen bond and tighten the neck of the LBP upon binding of the endogenous ligand E2. 4-Hydroxytamoxifen (OHT) is an other selective estrogen receptor modulator. <scene name='Journal:JMEDCHEM:1/Al/5'>Superposition</scene> of EPTA-Eu/ERα-LBD complex on OHT/ERα-LBD complex ([[3ert]]) shows that there is similar network of hydrogen bonds in both complexes, except for His524 which does not form hydrogen bond with OHT in the OHT/ERα-LBD complex. <scene name='Journal:JMEDCHEM:1/Al1/3'>Superposition of structures of all these three complexes:</scene> E2/ERα-LBD ([[1ere]]), OHT/ERα-LBD ([[3ert]]) and EPTA-Eu/ERα-LBD shows that they overlap well in the majority portions of the domain, but differ significantly in the region of the 'omega loop'. They display different synergistic reciprocating movements, depending on the specific nature of the ligand bound. The structure of estrogen receptor complexed with EPTA-Eu provides important information pertinent to the design of novel functional ER targeted probes for clinical applications.
*[[Ivan Koutsopatriy estrogen receptor]]
ER is a modular protein composed of a ligand binding domain, a DNA binding domain and a transactivation domain.  ER is a DNA-binding transcription factor. 

<scene name='71/714947/Er_bound_to_dna/4'>ER bound to DNA</scene>. The DNA binding domain can be clearly observed in this scene; the highlighted yellow helix in close proximity to the DNA is part of the DNA binding domain. The blue beta sheet close to the yellow DNA binding alpha helix is also part of the DNA binding domain. The transactivation domain forms an alpha helix which is colored in purple. The transactivation domain activates RNA polymerase when the receptor binds to DNA. The ligand binding domain may be observed here with the following scene. 

<scene name='71/714947/Agonist_ferutinine_bound_er/5'>Agonist ferutinine bound ER</scene>. The ligand ferutinine (highlighted in pink) is bound by the ligand binding domain, composed of the blue colored alpha helices immediately surrounding the purple ligand. Another view of the ligand binding domain is shown here, with estradiol bound. <scene name='71/714947/Er_ligand_binding_domain_estra/1'>ER ligand binding domain bound to estradiol</scene>.
ER is functional as a ligand-dependent transcription factor. ER responds to both agonist and antagonist ligands and can associate with the nuclear matrix. Differences in the structure of the receptor are observed depending on what ligand ER has bound (if any). Through comparisons of ER bound to agonist and antagonist ligands, some structural components may be highlighted. <scene name='71/714947/Agonist_estradiol_bound_er/2'>Agonist estradiol bound er</scene> The specific conformation of this tight loop of alpha helices and beta sheets around the ligand shows a complex capable of activating ER's transcription loci.  This complex allows for the activation signal that will stimulate normal growth. 

Normal growth is stimulated when an agonist bound ER binds DNA. This occurs with the assistance of chaperon proteins. These chaperons are capable of recognizing estrogen receptor ligand complexes. When ER has bound a ligand chaperons facilitate the trans-location of the complex to the nucleus. Eventually the chaperon ligand ER complex will reach  specific euchromatin, at which point the chaperons facilitate the ligand ER complex to changes conformation. This conformation will facilitate the estrogen receptor to bind the DNA major groove at specific palindromic sequences. Estradiol is a normal ligand for ER and allows for binding in the major groove of DNA. 

If the ligand is an antagonist the transcription factor function of estrogen receptor becomes hindered. <scene name='71/714947/Partial_agonist_genistein_er/3'>Partial Agonist genistein bound ER</scene> The conformation of ER bound to the partial agonist genistein has a loop which is not as tight around the ligand as those found on ER with a complete agonist ligand. The ligands themselves take up different amounts of space and have varying interactions within ER. This slight difference effects the ability of the chaperon to be able to bind the receptor ligand complex to the major groove of DNA. There is a noticeable difference in the size of the pure agonist vs partial agonist scenes. Specifically, look at the width of the agonist compared to the partial agonist. 

Similar differences may be observed between ER which has bound the partial agonist and complete antagonist ligands. <scene name='71/714947/Antagonist_tamoxifen_bound_er/5'>Antagonist tamoxifen bound ER</scene> The most drastic difference is noticeable between agonist and antagonist ligands. Compare the agonist scene to the <scene name='71/714947/Agonist_estradiol_bound_er/2'>Agonist estradiol bound er</scene>. Special attention should be given to the bottom right alpha helices and beta sheets that are pushed out more in the antagonist compared to the agonist bound ER. 

Tamoxifen (an ER antagonist) is a drug created to bind ER and inhibit the transcription factor activity of ER. Tamoxifen is larger than the normal hormone ER binds (estradiol); for this reason added with the conformation estrogen receptor takes on, the activation loop is pushed into an inactive conformation. The picture below shows structural differences between the (left/blue) antagonist tamoxifen bound ER and the (right/tan) agonist estradiol bound ER. This blocks ER from giving the signal to grow. Antagonists are generally larger and cause estrogen receptors to be too hindered sterically to be able to bind to the major groove of DNA, inhibiting the receptor. The antagonist bound estrogen receptor is noticeably larger than the agonist bound version. Further inhibition occurs when ER has bound an antagonist ligand. Antagonist bound ER is still brought to Euchromatin in the nucleus. The larger than agonist bound ER ligand chaperon complex is not capable of binding the major groove of DNA, but still occupies the space around specific palindromic sites which ER binds and modifies the transcription of local genes to these palindromic sequence areas. This blocks agonist bound ER from being able to reach these specific palindromic major groove target loci in DNA.
* [[Tamoxifen|Tamoxifen and the Estrogen receptor]]
* [[Student Project 10 for UMass Chemistry 423 Spring 2015]]
<scene name='48/483891/Initial_view/1'>Estrogen receptor β</scene> (ER-β) is 1 of the 2 isoforms of the estrogen receptor, a ligand-activated transcription factor which regulates the biological effects of the steroid hormone 17 β-estradiol, or estrogen, in both males and females. The complex is a hetero-tetrameric assembly consisting of 4 molecules and a ligand: 2 copies of <scene name='48/483891/Erbeta/1'>estrogen receptor β</scene>, 2 copies of <scene name='48/483891/Steroid_receptor/3'>steroid receptor coactivator-1</scene>, and the ligand, <scene name='48/483891/Ligand/3'>Genistein</scene>. Once the ligand is bound, the complex recruits the steroid receptor coactivators, which recruit other proteins to form the transcriptional complex for initiation of transcription. This activates expression of reporter genes containing estrogen response elements. Genistein is a phytoestrogen with structural similarity to estrogen which competes for estrogen receptors. 

Although estrogen receptor β is widely expressed, it is not the primary estrogen receptor in most tissues. As a result, it has become a target for drug delivery, especially since it is 40x more selective for genistein than the α isoform. This enhanced selectivity may be caused by differences in residues <scene name='48/483891/Met336_ile373/2'>336 and 373</scene> between the 2 isoforms, allowing ER-β to accommodate more polar substituents in its binding pocket. ER-β differs greatly from ER-α at the N-terminal domains, which can be seen located at opposite ends from the C termini in this <scene name='48/483891/Rainbow/1'>rainbow representation</scene>. The protein is composed of 3 sections: a modulating N-terminal domain, a DNA-binding domain and a C-terminal ligand-binding domain.
{{Template:ColorKey_N2CRainbow}}

Each ERβ contains several domains with specific functions: an N-terminal domain (NTD), a {{Template:ColorKey Composition DNA}}-binding domain (DBD), a flexible hinge region and a C-terminal {{Template:ColorKey Composition Ligand}}-binding domain (LBD). The complex overall is about <scene name='48/483891/Erhelices/1'>66% helical (10 helices; 160 residues) and 3% β-sheet (2 strands; 9 residues)</scene>. The <scene name='48/483891/Ntd-erbeta/2'>NTD</scene> is the 1st activation function (AF-1) domain that consists mostly of random coils and a small portion of helices (red) and sheets (green); it is a <scene name='48/483891/Sequence_conservation/1'>variable region</scene>. This lack of structure allows the region to recruit and bond many different interaction partners. This region also has the capacity to transactivate transcription without binding estrogen. 

{{Template:ColorKey_ConSurf_NoYellow}}

The <scene name='48/483891/Dbdlbd/1'>DBD</scene> binds estrogen response elements (ERE) of target genes and recruits coactivator proteins responsible for the transcription of these genes. The ERE consist of a palindromic inverted repeat 5'GGTCAnnnTGACC-3' of target genes. The DBD is a highly <scene name='48/483891/Sequence_conservation/1'>conserved region</scene>. It is composed of 2 C4-type Zn fingers each containing <scene name='48/483891/Dbd-erbeta/4'>4 Cys</scene> residues coordinating to a Zn atom. 

The hinge region connects the DBD and LBD. 

<scene name='48/483891/Dbdlbd/1'>LBD</scene> binds estrogen, coregulatory proteins, corepressors and coactivators. Genistein is not generated by the endocrine system that binds ERβ like estrogen; both ligands are completely buried within the <scene name='48/483891/Hydrophobic_pocket/3'>hydrophobic core</scene>
({{Template:ColorKey_Hydrophobic}},  {{Template:ColorKey_Polar}}) of the ERβ complex.   

Binding at the LBD activates transcription mediated by the DBD. This domain is entirely helical; the LBD interacts with genistein through helices. The conformationally dynamic portion of this region gives rise to ERβ’s ligand-dependent transcriptional activation (AF-2) function. A key element of AF-2 is helix 12 (H12), which acts as a conformational switch; different receptor ligands influence the orientation of H12. Agonist ligands like genistein position H12 across the ligand-binding pocket of the LBD, which provides a coactivator docking surface. Geinstein binding allows the helices of AF-2 to form a shallow hydrophobic binding site for leucine-rich motifs of coactivators to bind. This conformation provides optimal interaction with coactivators and transcription is activated.

Genistein's bicyclic form allows it to hydrogen bond on opposite sides with the hydroxyls of the histidine groups on the receptor. <scene name='48/483891/Estrogen_kyle/12'>His475's</scene> binding to the receptor causes a conformational change and activates the receptor resulting in up-regulation for coactivators. Down-regulation will occur in the presence of corepressor as they bind to repressors and indirectly regulate gene expression. In order for the estrogen receptor β genistein to bind to a receptor and activate it there must be stabilization by a coactivator. The coactivator increases the gene expression and with this increase allows it to bind to an activator group consisting of a DNA binding domain. The estrogen receptor is found to be comprised of a dimer attached to a ligand and coactivator peptide which helps to stabilize the structure of each monomer. The conformational state of helix-12 can be modified by the binding of the coactivator.

This <scene name='48/483891/Estrogen_kyle/8'>scene</scene> depicts the hydrophobic and hydrophilic residues of the estrogen receptor. The hydrophobic regions are primarily on the inside of the protein surrounding genistein (red).  Having the hydrophobic residues surrounding the binding pocket will stabilize the structure. The structure of this pocket is tertiary and do to the hydrophobic interactions inside the pocket and hydrophilic interactions on the outside help to stabilize this tertiary structure. The <scene name='48/483891/Estrogen_kyle/16'>binding pocket</scene> is hydrophobic which means that an increase in lipophilicity would increase the affinity for ligands which in this case is genistein. The genistein structure has 3 hydroxyl groups, an ether and an ester. These 3 functional groups are polar and have many possibilities for hydrogen bonding. The His475 and Met336 residues in the binding pocket are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with genistein do to the many hydrogen bond forming functional groups. These residues are different from the residues found in ERα and so the selectivity of genistein is much greater for ERβ.

Upon visualizing the estrogen receptor in an <scene name='48/483891/Arrow_view/1'>arrow representation</scene>, the structure can be classified as parallel or anti-parallel. Here is the zoomed <scene name='48/483891/Hydrophobic_pocket/3'>primarily hydrophobic pocket</scene>. 
*[[Estrogen-related receptor]]
<scene name='50/501401/Cv/4'>Binding of nuclear receptor corepressor 2 peptide and 4-hydroxytamoxifen</scene> to human estrogen-related receptor γ. The chemotherapeutic drugs bisphenol and <scene name='50/501401/Cv/5'>tamoxifen</scene> are nestled between 4 alpha helices in the ERR active site.
*[[Glucocorticoid receptor]]
*[[Mineralocorticoid receptor]]
The MR ligand aldosterone binds in a <scene name='78/781019/Cv/6'>fully enclosed pocket, contacting residues with six α-helices and a β-turn</scene> ({{Template:ColorKey_Helix}}, {{Template:ColorKey_Strand}}, {{Template:ColorKey_Loop}},
{{Template:ColorKey_Turn}}).  <scene name='78/781019/Cv/7'>It forms hydrogen bonds with 4 MR residues</scene><ref>PMID:15967794</ref>. <scene name='78/781019/Cv/8'>Whole binding site</scene>. Water molecules are shown as red spheres.
*[[Progesterone receptor]]
The structure of the complex of the ligand-binding domain of PR with RU486 - an abortion-inducing drug - shows the ligand bound at a similar location to other agonists or partial agonists with a flexible loop of PR being a possible entry route to the <scene name='78/780972/Cv/4'>binding site and several PR-RU486 interactions</scene>
*[[Androgen receptor]]
AR structure is composed of 5 domains: 
A/B: N-terminal regulatory domain contains activation function 1 (residues 101-370),  activation function 5 (residues 360-485) and dimerization surface (residues 1-36 and 370-494).

C: DNA binding domain (DBD)

D: Hinge region between DBD and LBD

E: Ligand binding domain (LBD) containing an <scene name='54/543362/Cv/3'>active site</scene> which binds intramolecularly the N-terminal FXXFL motif or coactivators with the same motif.

F: C-terminal domain
*[[Liver receptor homolog-1]]?
The <scene name='77/777031/Cv/2'>ligand of LRH-1 binds deep in the binding pocket and is fully engulfed by it</scene>. 

<scene name='77/777031/Cv/4'>Agonist binding site</scene>.
==Endoplasmic reticulum/Sarcoplasmic reticulum receptors==

===Ligand-gated Calcium channels===
====[[Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate Receptor]]====
====[[Ryanodine receptor]]====

'''SEE ALSO:'''
*[[Hormones and their receptors]]
*[[Hormone]]
*[[Receptor]]
*[[Signal transduction]]
</StructureSection>
== References ==
<references/>