Tutorial:Basic Chemistry Topics: Difference between revisions
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By the end of this tutorial you should be able to: | By the end of this tutorial you should be able to: | ||
1. Understand and explain the importance of Tobramycin as an antibiotic | 1. Understand and explain the importance of Tobramycin as an antibiotic | ||
2. Describe and provide examples of covalent bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds | |||
==Tobramycin== | ==Tobramycin== | ||
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Tobramycin is an antibiotic part of the aminoglycoside family. Aminoglycosides produce antibacterial effects by inhibiting protein synthesis and compromising the cell wall structure. By inhibiting the protein synthesis of the bacteria it does not allow the bacteria to replicate. The cell wall is an important structure to bacteria, because it provides the structure and stability to the bacteria. By disrupting the cell wall we are removing the stability of the bacteria and ultimately casing bacteria death. Tobramycin targets a variety of bacteria particularly gram(-) species. Just like all drugs there are side effects associated with tobramycin. Some of the more common side effects are ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Ototoxic is hearing loss and nephrotoxic is causing kidney damage. The kidney damage is due to Tobramycin reabsorption through the renal tubules. This basically means that tobramycin may be toxic to the kidneys and the toxicity is caused by the contact-time in the renal tubules where the drug is located. Tobramycin trade name is Tobrex. A trade name is another name for tobramycin. It is a pregnancy category D. Pregnancy categories are assigned to all drugs. They are used to classify how likely the drug is to cause harm to the fetus. The pregnancy categories are A, B, C, D, and X. Pregnancy category A causes no harm to the fetus and pregnancy category X, which indefinitely causes harm to the fetus. Since Tobramycin is a pregnancy category D, this is not an optimal choice for a pregnant patient. Tobramycin can be given intravenously, intramuscularly, as an inhalation or ophthalmicly. Intravenously is an IV route of administration where the drug is administered directly to the vasculature or blood vessels. Intramuscular is a shot that penetrates your muscle. A common example of an intramuscular administration would be a flu shot. Inhalation is a route of administration where the lungs are the targets. An example of this would be an inhaler used in asthmatics. Ophthalmic administration is where the drug is administered to the eye; an example would be an eye drop. | Tobramycin is an antibiotic part of the aminoglycoside family. Aminoglycosides produce antibacterial effects by inhibiting protein synthesis and compromising the cell wall structure. By inhibiting the protein synthesis of the bacteria it does not allow the bacteria to replicate. The cell wall is an important structure to bacteria, because it provides the structure and stability to the bacteria. By disrupting the cell wall we are removing the stability of the bacteria and ultimately casing bacteria death. Tobramycin targets a variety of bacteria particularly gram(-) species. Just like all drugs there are side effects associated with tobramycin. Some of the more common side effects are ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Ototoxic is hearing loss and nephrotoxic is causing kidney damage. The kidney damage is due to Tobramycin reabsorption through the renal tubules. This basically means that tobramycin may be toxic to the kidneys and the toxicity is caused by the contact-time in the renal tubules where the drug is located. Tobramycin trade name is Tobrex. A trade name is another name for tobramycin. It is a pregnancy category D. Pregnancy categories are assigned to all drugs. They are used to classify how likely the drug is to cause harm to the fetus. The pregnancy categories are A, B, C, D, and X. Pregnancy category A causes no harm to the fetus and pregnancy category X, which indefinitely causes harm to the fetus. Since Tobramycin is a pregnancy category D, this is not an optimal choice for a pregnant patient. Tobramycin can be given intravenously, intramuscularly, as an inhalation or ophthalmicly. Intravenously is an IV route of administration where the drug is administered directly to the vasculature or blood vessels. Intramuscular is a shot that penetrates your muscle. A common example of an intramuscular administration would be a flu shot. Inhalation is a route of administration where the lungs are the targets. An example of this would be an inhaler used in asthmatics. Ophthalmic administration is where the drug is administered to the eye; an example would be an eye drop. | ||
== | ==Types of Bonds== | ||
Hydrogen Bonds are attractive interactions (dipole-dipole) between an electronegative atom and hydrogen. The hydrogen bonds in this picture are displayed as yellow dashed lines. | |||
There are 3 common types of bonds. A hydrogen bond, covalent bonds, or an ionic bond. The strongest bond is a covalent bond followed by the ionic bond, leaving the weakest bond to be the hydrogen bond. Covalent bonds, the strongest type of bond, they involves the sharing of electrons between two molecules. An example of a covalent bond is hydrochloric acid or HCl. The electrons are being shared between the chlorine atom (Cl) and the hydrogen atom (H). An ionic bond is an attraction between two molecules of opposite charge. The opposite charges I am referring to are a positive (+) and a negative charge (-). A positively charged atom is referred to as a cation, and a negatively charged atom is referred to as an anion. Hydrogen Bonds, the weakest of bonds, are attractive interactions (dipole-dipole) between an electronegative atom and hydrogen. Electronegative atoms are atoms that have high electron density. They are strong atoms that pull electrons towards then from weaker/low electron density atoms, such as hydrogen. When the electronegative atom pulls the electrons it leaves the other atom with a slight positive charge. The most common example of hydrogen bonding is water. The water molecule chemical formula is H2O. The highly electronegative oxygen pulls the hydrogen closer by attracting hydrogen’s electrons allowing the formation of a water droplet. The electronegative atoms allow for the droplet to be held together instead of spreading. The hydrogen bonds in this picture are displayed as yellow dashed lines. The hydrogen bonds in this molecule are important to the secondary structures providing the stability of the atoms orientation. | |||
==Secondary Structures== | |||
This molecule represents the <scene name='Aminoglycoside_2'-N-acetyltransferase_from_TB/Alpha_and_beta_sheets/1'>alpha helices and beta strands</scene>. The alpha helices are represented with pink arrows and the beta strands are represented with yellow arrows. This molecule has approximately four alpha helices and two beta strands. The structure of the alpha and beta sheets in tuberculosis/CoA/ and Tobramycin structure represents the GNAT fold. The GNAT fold is almost completely catalyzed by CoA- dependent transfer of an acyl group to an exposed amino acid group. This interaction is the basis for the study. This shows how the acetylation of Mycothiol is occurring and why. | |||
==Active Site== | ==Active Site== | ||
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